Emperor Taizong Li Shimin said: "To cater to the feelings of one person is a deep misfortune for the people; this is the policy that leads to the fall of a nation." The emperor, with his autocratic rule, governed the world based on the whims of one person, while the court was filled with flattery, treating all edicts, regardless of their correctness, as "golden words," with no one daring to oppose or refute, and no one offering differing opinions. This inevitably plunges the common people into deep misfortune, which is the policy that leads to the fall of a nation.
Why did the autocratic, centralized emperor Li Shimin say this? Since it is an autocratic centralization, why must he listen to others' opinions and not simply "cater to one person's feelings"? In fact, there is a distinction between "autocracy" and "dictatorship."
- Autocracy is the control of power, which cannot fall into the hands of others;
- Dictatorship is power that is unrestrained, acting solely on one's own will.
Autocracy is a systemic issue, while dictatorship is a mechanism issue. An autocratic monarch does not necessarily have to be a dictator, but a dictatorial monarch must be in an autocratic system. When both autocratic and dictatorial, it becomes a tyrannical regime of "one person ruling the world, the world serving one person."
Autocratic emperors are also well aware that "dictatorship" is not so reliable. A wise emperor will respect and value "different voices" to avoid making grave mistakes due to "one-person rule," which could jeopardize the throne. Only an emperor who can accept critical opinions can more sustainably consolidate autocratic imperial power.
Therefore, even Han Fei, who strongly advocated for monarchical autocracy and dictatorship, believed that the monarch must "see with the nation in mind" and "listen with the nation in mind." The wise Li Shimin initiated the "sealed rebuttal system" to remind and restrain the emperor's dictatorship, which then developed into a unique administrative mechanism of the autocratic dynasty.
Sealed Rebuttal System#
What is "sealed rebuttal"? It means "to seal and return edicts, to rebut and correct violations." Ministers review the emperor's "sacred orders," and if they find any discrepancies, they can propose amendments or even reject them and request a re-draft. Under this administrative mechanism, the emperor's edicts must be drafted by the Chancellery, reviewed and signed by the Secretariat before they can take effect.
Of course, Li Shimin was originally an autocratic monarch who was unwilling to be bound by law, and he may not have been as democratic as he claimed. What is commendable is that this second emperor of the Tang autocratic dynasty actively proposed the "sealed rebuttal" and maintained a cautious approach to governance and an awareness of accepting criticism for a considerable time, thus avoiding major mistakes in the governance of autocratic imperial power.
Li Shimin once told the Minister of the Interior Wang Gui that the establishment of the Chancellery and the Secretariat was to mutually "inspect" each other, with the Chancellery drafting edicts that "may have discrepancies," which the Secretariat should "rebut and correct." The different opinions of individuals "mutually differ" and are repeatedly discussed to "seek the most appropriate."
However, during the implementation of the system, the mutual "inspection" between the Chancellery and the Secretariat became merely formal. Li Shimin then offered stern criticism: if there are inappropriate aspects in the edicts, they should be discussed, but now it seems that only "compliance" is observed, and different opinions are unheard. If this is how "documents are written," anyone can do it; what use do you have?
Li Shimin took the two emperors of the Sui Dynasty as a cautionary tale, saying: "If a person wants to see their own form, they must rely on a bright mirror; if a ruler wants to know their own faults, they must rely on loyal ministers." Emperor Yang Guang of the Sui was "stubborn and disregarded advice," while Yu Shiji "flattered and complied," resulting in Yang Guang being assassinated and Yu Shiji perishing, while the ministers who "served Yang Guang to secure wealth and nobility" ended up with nothing.
Thus, following one person's feelings, as Yang Guang did, is "a policy that leads to the fall of a nation." On the other hand, Emperor Wen Yang Jian's "decisions were all self-made, not relying on ministers" and "not discerning yet pleased," is also not commendable. The emperor deals with myriad affairs daily; even if "troubled in mind and body," he cannot handle everything well. Moreover, "if one is not discerning, there will be misunderstandings, and if one is pleased, there will be excessive suspicion."
If the emperor does not trust his ministers, and everything is done according to his will, even if the emperor's views are wrong, no one dares to advise or argue, this is the reason for the fall of the second emperor of the Sui. "My intention is otherwise; with the vastness of the world, the multitude of people, and the myriad affairs, it must be flexible and adaptable, all entrusted to the various departments for discussion, and the chancellor's planning must be stable and convenient for execution."
The world is so vast, with so many people and countless affairs of state; how can one person manage everything personally? In Li Shimin's view, power must be delegated, and collective wisdom must be sought, especially relying on the chancellor for decision-making to get things done. "How can one manage all affairs with the thoughts of one person in a day?"
Making correct decisions is certainly good, but those wrong decisions can only make the common people bear the cost, and over time, will inevitably lead to major mistakes. "How can one not appoint virtuous and capable people, maintain a high perspective, and enforce strict laws? Who would dare to act unlawfully?" With the emperor retaining the final decision-making power, delegating governance to the chancellor to manage affairs, adhering to the rule of law, and having a clear mirror hanging high, who would dare to act recklessly?
"If there are any inconveniences in the edicts issued, they must be reported, and cannot be executed simply according to the will; the opinions of the ministers must be fully considered," Li Shimin required that upon receiving the edicts, if any legal or practical issues were found, timely amendments must be proposed, and they could not be simply issued for execution.
The common shortcoming of Yang Jian and Yang Guang was their disregard for advice and counsel, and Li Shimin aimed to learn from this lesson. Thus, there appeared Wei Zheng, who dared to speak frankly and offer direct counsel. The officials led by Wei Zheng indeed dared to present differing opinions to Li Shimin, and at times, there were almost face-to-face debates and confrontations, and Li Shimin ultimately accepted some differing opinions.
The Minister of Personnel Changsun Wuji once "did not understand the penalty for entering the Eastern Pavilion with a sword," which was a crime, and the Minister of the Right Feng Deyi "was guilty of not noticing the gatekeeper, which deserved death; Wuji mistakenly brought someone, fined twenty pounds of copper." Li Shimin agreed with this judgment. However, the Deputy Minister of Justice Dai Zhou rebutted, saying: "The gatekeeper's negligence and Wuji bringing someone are both mistakes." Why was one sentenced to death while the other was fined?
Li Shimin could only say: "The law is not my law alone; it is the law of the world. How can one favor Wuji, a relative of the state?" Under Dai Zhou's insistence, the gatekeeper was spared death. It is indeed rare for an autocratic emperor to say, "The law is not my law alone; it is the law of the world."
In fact, the tradition of advising and supervising the emperor has existed since ancient times. The system of officials responsible for supervision and counsel has a long history, from Emperor Shun, King Tang of Shang, King Wen of Zhou, through the Spring and Autumn period, the Qin and Han dynasties, to the Tang, Song, Ming, and Qing dynasties, where there were officials who dared to speak against the emperor, playing a significant role in preventing national policies from going astray and ensuring the balance of governance.
Regarding the Tang "sealed rebuttal system," as long as the "advice and counsel" system is implemented, political clarity, social stability, economic development, improvement of people's livelihoods, and public support will lead to a solid imperial authority and dynasty. The reigns of Emperor Taizong during the Zhenguan period, Emperor Xuanzong during the Kaiyuan period, and Emperor Xianzong during the early Yuanhe period were all like this, with the dynasty's endeavors flourishing and advancing vigorously.
However, later on, Wu Zetian executed the dissenting minister Liu Yi at home, and the "sealed rebuttal" ultimately failed to restrain the ambitions of autocratic imperial power. The "advice and counsel" system was destroyed, and the emperor ruled with autocratic decisiveness, leading to political blindness, social turmoil, and the decline of people's livelihoods, causing the dynasty's endeavors to shift from prosperity to decline, with imperial authority and the throne hanging by a thread. The periods of Emperor Xuanzong during the Tianbao era, Emperor Dezong, and the later period of Emperor Xianzong during Yuanhe all serve as evidence.
If there are not a few "counselors" or "dissenting ministers" around the emperor to whisper "unpleasant" truths to keep him alert, while the court is filled with flattery of "Your Majesty is wise" and "Long live the Emperor," leading to complacency, then this emperor is not far from downfall. Even worse, if an emperor accustomed to hearing good words kills all the "counselors" and "dissenting ministers," he will be playing right into the hands of those sycophants who constantly praise him, and before long, they will lead him to ruin, making the fall of the nation a foregone conclusion.