The Core Concepts of Original Confucian Thought#
1. Contractual Relationship Between Ruler and Subjects#
The Confucian thought system of Confucius and Mencius is bonded by "ritual" and centered on "benevolence," constructing a community of responsibility among the ruler, ministers, and the people. Benevolence requires obligations towards the people and also a contract with the ruler. If a ruler lacks the moral qualities of a leader, according to Mencius, the people have a moral right to revolt. In such a case, killing the ruler is merely eliminating an unjust person and does not count as "regicide." In the eighth section of "Mencius: Gongsun Chou," Mencius argues that if a ruler's words and actions are unworthy of being a ruler, according to Confucius's principle of "rectifying names," he is no longer a ruler morally but has become a "tyrant." In the fourteenth section of "Mencius: Jinxin," Mencius states, "The people are the most important, the state is secondary, and the ruler is the least important."
The noble officials who "cultivate the land" must fulfill their responsibility to "govern the people." The "Guoyu: Zhouyu" emphasizes that "if the land is left uncultivated, the people's strength will be exhausted, and grievances will arise," thus the nobility must reduce taxes to maintain balance. This spirit of contract is distilled by Confucius into the ethical principle of "ruler rules as a ruler, minister serves as a minister," meaning there are obligations to the people and constraints on the ruler, which is the essence of "the ruler uses the minister with propriety." Confucius emphasizes in "Analects: Bayi" that the ruler's respect for his subordinates should not only be reflected in ceremonial norms but also be implemented as goodwill in policies. When Duke Ai of Lu asked about governance, Confucius proposed, "Reduce labor and lighten taxes, then the people will prosper," extending the ritual system into the economic and livelihood domains.
2. The Boundaries of "Serving the Ruler with Loyalty"#
Zilu asked about serving the ruler, and Confucius replied, "Do not deceive him, but also do not offend him," endowing ministers with the moral obligation to critique the ruler. This "loyalty" is by no means blind obedience but is political loyalty measured by righteousness. According to Mencius, a sage king must have "a heart of compassion," and "benevolence" is the result of developing that compassion, which can only be cultivated through practicing love and kindness, meaning "extending oneself to others," which is the "path of loyalty and forgiveness": once a king becomes one with the people, he must do everything possible to fulfill the duties of a king. In "Mencius: Jinxin," it states: "All things are present within me. Reflecting on oneself and acting accordingly brings the greatest joy. Acting with strong forgiveness and seeking benevolence brings one closest to it." If a person fully develops their nature, they can not only understand heaven but also unite with it, thus the "path of loyalty and forgiveness" is a requirement for the king, not for the people to be "filial and loyal."
3. Power Constraints#
In "Mencius: Jinxin," it states, "If the feudal lords endanger the state, they should be replaced." If the feudal lords harm the nation, they should be removed. This reflects Mencius's people-centered thought, emphasizing that the legitimacy of rulers lies in whether they uphold the interests of the state and the people; otherwise, they can be replaced. In "Mencius: Teng Wengong," it states, "People's affairs cannot be delayed," referring to matters concerning the populace, such as agricultural production and welfare. Mencius emphasizes that handling the affairs of the people cannot be postponed and must be prioritized, with the welfare of the people being of utmost urgency.
Moral practice: Confucius proposed, "Serve the ruler with the Way; if it cannot be done, then stop," granting scholars the right to withdraw if the Way is not followed. Mencius further designed a specific procedure for the "noble relatives" to depose a ruler who has lost virtue. When Confucius revised the "Spring and Autumn Annals," he employed "euphemism," ostensibly to protect the ruler from the calamities of being overthrown, but in reality, it subtly satirized the ruler's loss of virtue and benevolence, resulting in a downward effect.
Key Nodes of Distortion in Confucian Thought#
1. Dong Zhongshu's "Sole Respect for Confucianism"#
After the fall of the Qin Dynasty, various schools of thought revived. The Han and Jing emperors emphasized Huang-Lao. After two dynasties of self-cultivation, the state was restored. During Emperor Wu of Han's reign, the feudal lords could not contend with the central authority; the powerful had been eliminated, and the weak submitted, resulting in a unified situation but lacking a unified theory. Dong Zhongshu presented the "Three Strategies of Heaven and Man," basing it on the philosophy of "the unity of heaven and man," proposing that heaven is the supreme deity and that the ruler is ordained by heaven ("the divine right of kings"). However, if the ruler loses the Way, heaven will issue warnings through disasters and strange phenomena ("disasters as warnings"), and if corrections are not made, it will lead to the collapse of the regime.
Dong Zhongshu proposed a complete set of theories to prove the will of heaven, asserting that heaven can be observed and explained. The way of heaven is the way of human relationships, known as the unity of heaven and man. From the seasonal changes to the smallest details of life, all reflect the will of heaven. The way of heaven is constant; people must follow heaven's intentions, which manifests as the ruler listening to heaven's will, subjects listening to the ruler, sons listening to fathers, and women listening to men, and so forth. "Lower matters serve higher ones, as the earth serves heaven; this is called great loyalty." From then on, the governance of the state was no longer based on the people but on heaven (everything looked to heaven's opinions, ordained by heaven, and the ruler became the son of heaven). Of course, "heaven's will" could also constrain the ruler's behavior, requiring him to cultivate virtue and govern diligently. Thus, the ruler became heaven! The ruler's will became heaven's will; who would dare to disobey heaven's will? The people's resistance was largely eliminated. Dong Zhongshu's "Three Principles and Five Constants" was distorted into a one-way obedience ethical framework, completely deviating from the original meaning of equal obligations as understood by Confucius and Mencius. "If the ruler wants the minister to die, the minister must die" became the label of Confucian "blind loyalty."
2. The Extremization of Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism#
Zhu Xi centered his philosophy on "preserving heavenly principles and extinguishing human desires," viewing "heavenly principles" as the fundamental law of the universe and the ultimate basis of Confucian ethics (benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom). Zhu Xi believed that human nature is inherently good (nature is principle), but postnatal desires can obscure heavenly principles. By "investigating things to extend knowledge," one could exhaust heavenly principles, and by "restraining oneself to return to propriety," one could suppress desires, ultimately achieving the state of "the heart and principle being one." Zhu Xi advocated for using heavenly principles to regulate familial (filial piety and brotherly love) and national (loyalty and righteousness) ethical relationships, maintaining the ritual education system of "Three Principles and Five Constants." What was originally a ritual education system for all levels of society became a cage suppressing the lower classes after being manipulated by the ruling class.
Wang Yangming's concept of "attaining innate knowledge" (internalizing heavenly principles as the essence of the heart) was ultimately also incorporated into the framework of maintaining the ruling class. The seemingly logically rigorous Ming rules were secretly transformed by the rulers into a jungle law-like unspoken rule. Rulers could apply this set of rules to the populace while exempting themselves from the game rules. Thus, two sets of rules operated in parallel, leading to a situation where the "moral" standards were dictated by those with discourse power. For example, in a group, who is deemed virtuous is not determined by the individual's qualities but by the leaders, which explains why everyone strives to enter the system—not for anything else but to gain that discourse power, which is the "power of life and death"!
3. The Alteration of Classics by Imperial Power#
Emperor Hongwu of the Ming Dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang, threatened by Mencius's "the people are precious, the ruler is light," expelled Mencius from the Confucian temple and altered the text of "Mencius." In fact, not only Zhu Yuanzhang, but throughout history, any books or discourses unfavorable to the ruling class have been suppressed, leading to literary inquisitions in every dynasty. More severely, since the Han Dynasty, the official selection system required candidates to take exams on Confucianism, making Confucianism the official doctrine. Initially, the examination scope was relatively broad, but by the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the "Four Books and Five Classics" became the standard for the imperial examination, and Zhu Xi's annotations replaced the original meanings of Confucius and Mencius, causing Confucianism to degenerate into a tool of governance. The people's thoughts were no longer free, and national thought became unified, with blind loyalty and filial piety prevailing.
4. The Convergence of Legalism and Confucianism#
Throughout history, dynasties adopted an "outer Confucianism and inner Legalism" approach, superficially respecting Confucianism while actually integrating Legalist power tactics. Shang Yang's "weak people" policy (in "Shangjunshu") and Han Feizi's "Eight Villains" control techniques directly contradicted Confucian people-centered thought but became means of governance.
- Han Dynasty: Ostensibly proclaimed "sole respect for Confucianism and the implementation of benevolent governance." In reality, the harsh official Zhang Tang used "Spring and Autumn Annals to adjudicate cases" to enforce severe laws and maintain imperial power, targeting the powerful.
- Tang Dynasty: Ostensibly stated "unity of ritual and law, virtue leads and punishment assists." In reality, Wu Zetian used "Da Yun Jing" to deify her rule while promoting a culture of informants to dismantle aristocratic power and consolidate personal authority.
- Ming Dynasty: Ostensibly claimed "emphasizing agriculture and caring for the people, frugality and love for the people." In reality, Zhu Yuanzhang used the empty seal case and the Guo Huan case to purge bureaucrats, implicating tens of thousands to eliminate corruption threats and centralize fiscal control.
- Qing Dynasty: Ostensibly proclaimed "Manchu and Han unity, the world belongs to the public." In reality, Yongzheng used "Da Yi Jue Mi Lu" to criticize dissenters, strengthen ideological control, and eliminate anti-Qing rhetoric, constructing the legitimacy of his rule.
Over thousands of years, the thoughts of the lower classes have been firmly pressed down on "loyalty and filial piety," repeatedly washed by those above. Wu Yu said: "The matters of filial piety and loyalty benefit the noble and the elder, but not the lowly; even if they are rewarded with honor and tempted with positions, there will always be a sense of extreme inequality towards the noble and elder." Lu Xun stated that this is a cannibalistic society, which is undoubtedly true. On one hand, they make you lay down your weapons, while on the other, they sharpen their knives.
Turning Confucianism into a cannibalistic ritual education is what the rulers most desire. Because this way, the cost is the lowest.