In 1517, Martin Luther rose up with a document titled "95 Theses," igniting the religious reform in Europe, directly targeting the Church's practice of selling indulgences. "Can people's sins be redeemed with money?" This assertion, like a thunderclap, resonated throughout Europe. In the following century, religious struggles in Europe intensified, leading to bloodshed and despair, with many feeling hopeless about the future of Europe. It was in such a violent and fearful era that a faint light of enlightenment began to shine.
In 1651, Hobbes's "Leviathan" emerged; in 1689, Locke's "Two Treatises of Government" made a remarkable impact. In just 38 years, a grand intellectual revolution unfolded in Western society, with four great thinkers—Hobbes, Descartes, Spinoza, and Locke—dissecting the barriers of the old order with their profound insights, ushering humanity into the age of enlightenment.
I. Hobbes's State of Nature#
From 1642 to 1654, England experienced a prolonged civil war, destroying social order, which deeply pained Hobbes. In response, he proposed the hypothesis of the "state of nature" in "Leviathan." He believed that in the state of nature, industries could not survive, outcomes were highly unstable, and people lived in constant fear and danger of death. Having witnessed the execution of Charles I and the disintegration of social order, Hobbes stated: "Where there is no common power, there is no law; where there is no law, there is no justice, and humanity will fall into a 'war of all against all' due to competition, distrust, and honor."
Hobbes's revolutionary contribution was his denial of the divine right of kings and his proposal of the social contract theory. He argued that the natural state of humanity is essentially a state of war, and to avoid this state, people voluntarily relinquish some rights to establish a government through a contract. The difference between Hobbes's social contract theory and modern social contract theories lies in its being a contract wielding a sword, meaning that the highest power is not constrained by law as long as it can maintain peace and security. This point illustrates Hobbes's aversion to the English Civil War.
II. Descartes's Light of Reason#
While Hobbes stirred a storm in political science, Descartes initiated a more profound revolution in epistemology. In his work "Discourse on the Method," Descartes proposed the groundbreaking proposition: "I think, therefore I am." Starting from radical doubt, he found an unshakeable foundation for knowledge. Descartes emphasized that reason, rather than tradition or faith, is the only standard for judging truth.
In "Discourse on the Method," Descartes outlined four principles of rationalism: universal doubt, simplification, complexity from simplicity, and comprehensive review. These principles emphasize acquiring certain knowledge through systematic analysis and logical deduction. The torch of reason ignited by Descartes illuminated the path of the entire Enlightenment movement. His methodology gave birth to modern science; for instance, Newton's classic work "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy" is a brilliant realization of Cartesian rationalism.
III. Spinoza's Freedom of Thought#
Under the illumination of Descartes's rational light, Spinoza ventured further and more radically, directing his critique at religious authority and monarchical despotism. For example, he used historical criticism to analyze the Bible, arriving at the shocking conclusion that the Bible is not an infallible truth; its authors are human, and it merely reflects the cognitive level of a specific historical period.
Spinoza systematically argued for the human right to freedom of thought, issuing the most powerful declaration of the Enlightenment: freedom is more precious than anything else. To this end, he advocated for the separation of church and state, asserting that the state must legislate to guarantee citizens' rights to free debate.
IV. Locke's Empiricism#
Locke experienced the Glorious Revolution in England, a bloodless revolution that established parliamentary sovereignty and the Bill of Rights. Locke's theoretical contributions are the philosophical summary and future blueprint of this revolution. In epistemology, Locke rejected Descartes's notion of "innate ideas," proposing the famous "tabula rasa" theory, which posits that humans are born as blank slates, without any marks or ideas; all human ideas come from experience.
In political science, Locke published his immortal work "Two Treatises of Government," reformulating Hobbes's social contract theory. Locke argued that under the constraints of reason, individuals possess natural rights to life, liberty, and property. The legitimacy of government derives from the consent of the governed, and the purpose of government is to protect these natural rights. To prevent government from going astray, Locke also proposed the theory of checks and balances, emphasizing that legislative and executive powers must be separated. In simple terms, one cannot be both the referee and the player.
The revolutionary ideas of these four great thinkers were not a linear succession but rather a mutual interplay and deepening, ultimately opening the grand curtain of the Enlightenment movement. Hobbes's terrifying depiction of the "state of nature" dismantled the foundations of theocratic rule; Descartes raised the torch of reason, paving the way for scientific exploration and freedom of thought; Spinoza issued the most passionate cry for freedom of thought; and Locke, grounded in experience, transformed abstract ideas of freedom into concrete rights and an operable constitutional framework.
Their thoughts transcend time and space, still shaping our understanding of individual dignity, social order, the boundaries of knowledge, and political power, forming the core conceptual genes of modern civilization. As Kant said: "Have the courage to use your own understanding!" Humanity must either be mechanically tamed or awakened by enlightenment.